The science of chocolate

1. History of chocolate

Chocolate as a drink

Eating chocolate

Chocolate crumb

White chocolate

Chocolate marketing in the UK

Chocolate is good for you

References

2. Chocolate ingredients

Cocoa beans

Cocoa trees

Commercial cocoa-producing countries

Cocoa pods

Fermentation

Fermentation procedure

Microbial and chemical changes

Drying

Storage and transport

Sugar and sugar substitutes

Sugar and its production

Crystalline and amorphous sugar

Lactose

Glucose and fructose

Sugar alcohols

Polydextrose

Milk and other dairy components

Milk fat

Milk proteins

Milk powders

Whey and lactose powders

Chocolate crumb

References

Additional reading

3. Cocoa bean processing

Beam cleaning

Roasting and winnowing

Problem of bean size variation

Winnowing

Bean roasting

Nib and liquor roasting

Roasters

Chemical changes during roasting

Maillard reaction

Grinding cocoa nib

Cocoa mills

Impact mills

Disc mills

Ball mills

Cocoa butter and cocoa powder production

Alkalising (dutching)

Cocoa butter

Cocoa powder

References

4. Liquid chocolate making

Chocolate milling

Separate ingredient grinding mills

Combined milling

Chocolate conching

Chemical changes

Physical changes

Viscosity reduction

Conching machines

Long conche

Rotary conches

Continuous low volume machines

Three stages of conching

References

5. Controlling the flow properties of liquid chocolate

Viscosity

Particle size

Particle size distribution data

Effect of particle size on viscosity

Effect of fat additions on viscosity

Moisture and chocolate flow

Emulsifiers and chocolate viscosity

Lecithin

Polyglycerol polyricinoleate

Other emulsifiers

Degree of mixing

References

6. Crystallising the fat in chocolate

Structure of cocoa butter

Different crystalline forms

Pre-crystallisation or tempering

Mixing different fats (fat eutectics )

Chocolate fat bloom

Some types of non-cocoa vegetable fat

Cocoa butter equivalents

Enzyme interesterification

Lauric fat cocoa butter replacers

Non-lauric fat cocoa

Butter replacers

Low calorie fats

7. Manufacturing chocolate products

Tempering

Liquid chocolate storage

Tempering machines

Hand tempering

Temper measurement

Moulding

Solid tablets

Chocolate shells

Enrobers

Maintaining tempered chocolate

Solidifying the chocolate

Coolers

Panning

Chocolate coating

Sugar panning

References

8. Analytical techniques

Particle size measurement

Moisture determination

Fat content measurement

Viscosity determination

Simple factory techniques

Standard method

Flavour

Texture monitoring

Crystallisation amount and type

Nuclear magnetic resonance

Differential scanning calorimetry

References

9. Different chocolate products

Special recipes

Ice-cream coatings

Shape-retaining chocolate

Modifying the fat phase

Transparent coatings

Water

Building a framework of solid particles

Air bubbles in chocolate

Factors affecting bubble size

Water evaporation bubbles

Cream eggs and other filled chocolate shapes

Multiple chocolates and centres

10. Legislation, shelf life and packaging

Legislation

Shelf life

Packaging

Foil and paper wrap

Flow wrap

Biopolymers

Robotic packing

References

11. Nutrition and health

Nutrition

Fats

Carbohydrates

Proteins

Obesity

Tooth decay

Anti-caries factor in cocoa

Tooth-friendly milk proteins

Oxalic acid

Oral acid

Oral clearance

Other alleged negative reactions

Migraine and headaches

Acne

Allergies

Positive health effects

Psychoactive compounds

References

12. Experiments with chocolate and chocolate products

Amorphous and crystalline sugar

Particle separation

Fat migration

Cocoa butter separation

Chocolate viscosity

Particle size of chocolate

Effect of lecithin

Changing the continuous phase

Chocolate temper

Hardness measurement

Chocolate composition and product weight control

Distributions and probabilities

Chromatography of colours

Effectiveness of different packaging materials

Viscosity and flavour

Heat-resistance testing

Coefficient of expansion

Maillard reaction

Glossary

Subject index.