Grading

Part 1. Understanding Grading

Introduction

Why Grading

Purposes for Grading

Definitions of Terms

Organization

Self-Reflection: Now and Later

Grading in Its Contexts

The Historical Context of Grading

Current Context of Grading

Social Context of Grading

Legal Context of Grading

The Educational Psychology of Grading

Student Perceptions

Influence of Grading Practices on Motivation to Learn

Functions of Feedback to Students

The Classroom Assessment Environment

Part 2. Integrating Assessment And Instruction

Designing Assessments That Reflect Intentions for Learning

Matching Assessment and Instruction

Paper-and-Pencil Tests

Novel Applications are Required to Tap Higher Order Thinking

Performance Assessments

Scoring Is Part of the Match

Deciding on the Bases for Grading

Formative and Summative Evaluation

Bases for Grading

Kinds of Grading Schemes

Assessment Versus Grading

Providing Grades and Other Feedback to Students

Providing Informative Feedback

Student Involvement in Assessment

Grading Is a Skill

Grading Tests

Grading Projects, Term Papers, and Written Reports

Final Thoughts

Part 3. Combining Grades Into Marks For Report Cards

Grading Policies and Formats

Grades Should Reflect Achievement

Report Card Formats

Grading Policies

Grade-Point Averages

Self-Reflection Is Critical

Developmental Concerns in Grading

Grading in Special Education

Grading in Early Childhood

Grading in Elementary and Secondary Classrooms

Developing Skills at Combining Grades into Marks for Report Cards

Arriving at a Categorical Grade

Arriving at a Letter Grade via Rubrics

Arriving at a Letter Grade via Points

Electronic Methods: Gradebook Packages, Web-Based Systems

Other Ways of Communicating About Student Achievement

Sending Work Home

A Communication Process Portfolios Narratives

Parent-Teacher, Student-Teacher, or Student-Parent-Teacher Conferences

Appendix A. Test Blueprints

Appendix B. Do's and Don'ts for Writing Good Test Items

Appendix C. Alternative Assessment Checklist

Appendix D. Key for Sample Papers from Chapter 6