Global tectonics

1 Historical perspective: 1.1 Continental drift

1.2 Sea floor spreading and the birth of plate tectonics

1.3 Geosynclinal theory

1.4 Impact of plate tectonics. 2 The interior of the Earth: 2.1 Earthquake seismology

2.1.1 Introduction

2.1.2 Earthquake descriptors

2.1.3 Seismic waves

2.1.4 Earthquake location

2.1.5 Mechanism of earthquakes

2.1.6 Focal mechanism solutions of earthquakes

2.1.7 Ambiguity in focal mechanism solutions

2.1.8 Seismic tomography

2.2 Velocity structure of the Earth

2.3 Composition of the Earth

2.4 The crust

2.4.1 The continental crust

2.4.2 Upper continental crust

2.4.3 Middle and lower continental crust

2.4.4 The oceanic crust

2.4.5 Oceanic layer 1

2.4.6 Oceanic layer 2

2.4.7 Oceanic layer 3

2.5 Ophiolites

2.6 Metamorphism of oceanic crust

2.7 Differences between continental and oceanic crust

2.8 The mantle

2.8.1 Introduction

2.8.2 Seismic structure of the mantle

2.8.3 Mantle composition

2.8.4 The mantle low velocity zone

2.8.5 The mantle transition zone

2.8.6 The lower mantle

2.9 The core

2.10 Rheology of the crust and mantle

2.10.1 Introduction

2.10.2 Brittle deformation

2.10.3 Ductile deformation

2.10.4 Lithospheric strength profiles 2.10.5 Measuring continental deformation

2.10.6 Deformation in the mantle

2.11 Isostasy

2.11.1 Introduction

2.11.2 Airy's hypothesis

2.11.3 Pratt's hypothesis

2.11.4 Flexure of the lithosphere

2.11.5 Isostatic rebound

2.11.6 Tests of isostasy

2.12 Lithosphere and asthenosphere

2.13 Terrestrial heat flow. 3 Continental drift: 3.1 Introduction

3.2 Continental reconstructions

3.2.1 Euler's theorem

3.2.2 Geometric reconstructions of continents

3.2.3 The reconstruction of continents around the Atlantic

3.2.4 The reconstruction of Gondwana

3.3 Geologic evidence for continental drift

3.4 Paleoclimatology

3.5 Paleontologic evidence for continental drift

3.6 Paleomagnetism

3.6.1 Introduction

3.6.2 Rock magnetism

3.6.3 Natural remanent magnetization

3.6.4 The past and present geomagnetic field

3.6.5 Apparent polar wander curves

3.6.6 Paleogeographic reconstructions based on paleomagnetism. 4 Sea floor spreading and transform faults: 4.1 Sea floor spreading

4.1.1 Introduction

4.1.2 Marine magnetic anomalies

4.1.3 Geomagnetic reversals

4.1.4 Sea floor spreading

4.1.5 The Vine-Matthews hypothesis

4.1.6 Magnetostratigraphy

4.1.7 Dating of the ocean floor

4.2 Transform faults

4.2.1 Introduction

4.2.2 Ridge-ridge transform faults

4.2.3 Ridge jumps and transform fault offsets. 5 The framework of plate tectonics: 5.1 Plates and plate margins

5.2 Distribution of earthquakes

5.3 Relative plate motions

5.4 Absolute plate motions

5.5 Hotspots

5.6 True polar wander

5.7 Cretaceous superplume

5.8 Direct measurement of relative plate motions

5.9 Finite plate motions

5.10 Stability of triple junctions

5.11 Present day triple junctions. 6 Ocean ridges: 6.1 Ocean ridge topography

6.2 Broad structure of the upper mantle below ridges

6.3 Origin of anomalous upper mantle beneath ridges

6.4 Depth-age relationship of oceanic lithosphere

6.5 Heat flow and hydrothermal circulation

6.6 Seismic evidence for an axial magma chamber

6.7 Along-axis segmentation of oceanic ridges

6.8 Petrology of ocean ridges

6.9 Shallow structure of the axial region

6.10 Origin of the oceanic crust

6.11 Propagating rifts and microplates

6.12 Oceanic fracture zones. 7 Continental rifts and rifted margins: 7.1 Introduction

7.2 General characteristics of narrow rifts

7.3 General characteristics of wide rifts

7.4 Volcanic activity

7.4.1 Large igneous provinces

7.4.2 Petrogenesis of rift rocks

7.4.3 Mantle upwelling beneath rifts

7.5 Rift initiation

7.6 Strain localization and delocalization processes

7.6.1 Introduction

7.6.2 Lithospheric stretching

7.6.3 Buoyancy forces and lower crustal flow

7.6.4 Lithospheric flexure

7.6.5 Strain-induced weakening

7.6.6 Rheological stratification of the lithosphere

7.6.7 Magma-assisted rifting

7.7 Rifted continental margins

7.7.1 Volcanic margins

7.7.2 Nonvolcanic margins

7.7.3 The evolution of rifted margins

7.8 Case studies: the transition from rift to rifted margin

7.8.1 The East African Rift system

7.8.2 The Woodlark Rift

7.9 The Wilson cycle. 8 Continental transforms and strike-slip faults: 8.1 Introduction

8.2 Fault styles and physiography

8.3 The deep structure of continental transforms

8.3.1 The Dead Sea Transform

8.3.2 The San Andreas Fault

8.3.3 The Alpine Fault

8.4 Transform continental margins

8.5 Continuous versus discontinuous deformation

8.5.1 Introduction

8.5.2 Relative plate motions and surface velocity fields

8.5.3 Model sensitivities

8.6 Strain localization and delocalization mechanisms

8.6.1 Introduction

8.6.2 Lithospheric heterogeneity

8.6.3 Strain-softening feedbacks

8.7 Measuring the strength of transforms. 9 Subduction zones: 9.1 Ocean trenches

9.2 General morphology of island arc systems

9.3 Gravity anomalies of subduction zones

9.4 Structure of subduction zones from earthquakes

9.5 Thermal structure of the downgoing slab

9.6 Variations in subduction zone characteristics

9.7 Accretionary prisms

9.8 Volcanic and plutonic activity

9.9 Metamorphism at convergent margins

9.10 Backarc basins. 10 Orogenic belts: 10.1 Introduction

10.2 Ocean-continent convergence

10.2.1 Introduction

10.2.2 Seismicity, plate motions and subduction geometry

10.2.3 General geology of the central and southern Andes

10.2.4 Deep structure of the central Andes

10.2.5 Mechanisms of noncollisional orogenesis

10.3 Compressional sedimentary basins

10.3.1 Introduction

10.3.2 Foreland basins

10.3.3 Basin inversion

10.3.4 Modes of shortening in foreland fold-thrust belts

10.4 Continent-continent collision

10.4.1 Introduction

10.4.2 Relative plate motions and collisional history

10.4.3 Surface velocity fields and seismicity

10.4.4 General geology of the Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau

10.4.5 Deep structure

10.4.6 Mechanisms of continental collision

10.5 Arc-continent collision

10.6 Terrane accretion and continental growth

10.6.1 Terrane analysis

10.6.2 Structure of accretionary orogens

10.6.3 Mechanisms of terrane accretion. 11 Precambrian tectonics and the supercontinent cycle: 11.1 Introduction

11.2 Precambrian heat flow

11.3 Archean tectonics

11.3.1 General characteristics of cratonic mantle lithosphere

11.3.2 General geology of Archean cratons

11.3.3 The formation of Archean lithosphere

11.3.4 Crustal structure

11.3.5 Horizontal and vertical tectonics

11.4 Proterozoic tectonics

11.4.1 General geology of Proterozoic crust

11.4.2 Continental growth and craton stabilization

11.4.3 Proterozoic plate tectonics

11.5 The supercontinent cycle

11.5.1 Introduction

11.5.2 Pre-Mesozoic reconstructions

11.5.3 A Late Proterozoic supercontinent

11.5.4 Earlier supercontinents

11.5.5 Gondwana-Pangea assembly and dispersal. 12 The mechanism of plate tectonics: 12.1 Introduction

12.2 Contracting Earth hypothesis

12.3 Expanding Earth hypothesis

12.3.1 Calculation of the ancient moment of inertia of the Earth

12.3.2 Calculation of the ancient radius of the Earth

12.4 Implications of heat flow

12.5 Convection in the mantle

12.5.1 The convection process

12.5.2 Feasibility of mantle convection

12.5.3 The vertical extent of convection

12.6 The forces acting on plates

12.7 Driving mechanism of plate tectonics

12.7.1 Mantle drag mechanism

12.7.2 Edge-force mechanism

12.8 Evidence for convection in the mantle

12.8.1 Introduction

12.8.2 Seismic tomography

12.8.3 Superswells

12.8.4 The D" layer

12.9 The nature of convection in the mantle

12.10 Plumes

12.11 The mechanism of the supercontinent cycle. 13 Implications of plate tectonics: 13.1 Environmental change

13.1.1 Changes in sea level and sea water chemistry

13.1.2 Changes in oceanic circulation and the Earth?s climate

13.1.3 Land areas and climate

13.2 Economic geology

13.2.1 Introduction

13.2.2 Autochthonous and allochthonous mineral deposits

13.2.3 Deposits of sedimentary basins

13.2.4 Deposits related to climate

13.2.5 Geothermal power

13.3 Natural hazards.